Provenance transaction types

Provenance is an integral part of the history of an artwork, tracing its steps from creation to present day. This documentation creates a comprehensive biography of each piece, revealing crucial details about ownership changes and their historical contexts. Provenance research helps museums and collectors verify the moral and legal validity of ownership chains, particularly given concerns about looted or unlawfully acquired artworks. Today's researchers seek to create provenance records that are as accurate and complete as possible, filling in all gaps to reconstruct the full story of an artwork's journey through time. Selecting the appropriate transaction type for each ownership change is essential to this process, ensuring that your documentation accurately reflects the circumstances of each transfer and provides clear, reliable information for future researchers, collectors, and institutions.

This article provides an overview of provenance transaction types currently available on the Navigating.art platform. The transaction types cover three different categories:

Change of ownership (e.g., acquisition, bequest, or gift)
Change of possession (e.g., stored, on deposit, or in possession). All possession event are displayed indented to indicate their relation to the last known owner.
Unlawful ownership changes (looting and forced sale). Any provenance events following after this type of event are automatically displayed indented to indicate unlawful exchange, even if they are ownership transactions. The indentation is stopped by adding an event of type "Restituted" or "Returned"

Overview of transaction types

Transaction type	Ownership or possession?	Description	Example
Acquisition	Ownership event	The named party acquired the artwork through an unspecified means. This transaction type is the default selection for acquisitions and pertains to instances where you don’t know additional details. Select this type when there is no explicit mention of the acquisition method. This provenance type can include a link to an auction.	Estate of John Smith (1907–8)
Artis's studio	Ownership event	The artwork is received directly from the artist's studio, documenting either the moment of reception or a period when the piece was stored within the artist's studio. Source and receiver are not required.	Studio of the artist (1952–77)
Bequest	Ownership event	The artwork is given to the receiver through a will following the death of the previous owner or source.	John Smith, New York, bequest (1952)
By descent	Ownership event	The artwork was given to the receiver following the death of a previous owner who was their family member.	John Smith, New York, by descent (1957)
By exchange	Ownership event	An acquisition wherein the named party received the artwork in exchange for something valuable, not involving monetary transactions.	John Smith, New York, by exchange (1978)
Commissioned	Ownership event	The artwork was commissioned by the named party.	John Smith, New York, commissioned from the artist (1977)
Confiscation	Ownership event	The artwork is legally taken possession of by an entity without the consent of the previous owner.	Confiscated by John Smith, New York (1952)
Consigned	Possession event	The artwork was given to the named party in order for them to sell the artwork. During this process the named party is not the owner of the artwork but merely the custodian. This provenance type can include a link to an auction.	On consignment with Sotheby's, New York (1952)
Destroyed	Ownership event	The artwork was permanently destroyed. Source and receiver are not required.	Destroyed (1960)
Donation	Ownership event	The artwork is donated to the receiver, typically an organization.	Robert Lehman Collection, New York, donation (1952–77)
Forced sale	Ownership event	The receiver purchased the artwork by using involuntary pressure on the seller. This provenance type can include a link to an auction.	Forced sale to John Smith, New York (1997)
Fractional gift	Possession event	A fraction of the source’s entire interest in an artwork is transferred to the receiver. The source intends to transfer the remaining fraction at a future date.	Fractional gift to Robert Lehman Collection, New York (1989)
Gift	Ownership event	The artwork is given to the receiver, usually an individual or a collective, rather than an institution.	John Smith, New York, gift (1897)
In possession	Possession event	The named party has temporary custody, but not ownership of this artwork.	Anderson Galleries, New York (1889)
Inherited	Ownership event	The artwork is given to the receiver following the death of the previous owner who was not part of the immediate family.	John Smith, New York, inherited (1904)
Location unknown	Possession event	The artwork cannot be located. Source and receiver are not required.	Location unknown (1942–67)
Looting	Ownership event	The artwork was looted during a conflict, such as a war, by the named party.	Looted by John Smith, New York (1952–74)
On deposit	Possession event	The named party has been given temporary custody without permission to sell or exhibit the artwork.	On deposit with John Smith, New York (1946–50)
On loan	Possession event	The named party has been given temporary custody for use, but without permission to sell the artwork.	On loan to John Smith, New York (1977)
Partial gift	Possession event	The artwork is transferred from one party to a legal entity that includes both themselves and another party.	Partial gift to John Smith, New York (1954)
Promised gift	Possession event	The current owner of the artwork intends to give it to the receiver, e.g., a museum. Depending on the institution, there is a formal process whereby the artwork receives an inventory number and the transaction type is included in the credit line.	Promised gift to John Smith, New York (1975)
Restitution	Ownership event	Restitution of unlawfully acquired artworks, including looted, expropriated, extorted, or forcibly sold items, to their rightful owners or their legal successors.	Restituted (1968)
Return	Ownership event	The artwork was returned to its owner from a party which had temporary custody.	Returned to John Smith, New York (1947)
Sale	Ownership event	The artwork was purchased by the named party. This provenance type can include a link to an auction.	John Smith, New York (1923)
Seized	Ownership event	The artwork is legally taken possession of by the receiver, often acting on behalf of the state or for sovereign use, without the previous owner’s consent. When used to describe Nazi activities during the WWII-era, the term implies that the artwork is not eligible for restitution.	John Smith, New York, seized (1974)
Sous réserve d'usufruit	Possession event	The artwork's ownership is contingent upon the right of usufruct, allowing someone else to use and benefit from the artwork while another party maintains ultimate ownership.	Sous réserve d’usufruit pour John Smith, New York (1952–86)
Stolen	Possession event	The artwork was stolen by the named party.	Stolen by John Smith, New York (1939)
Stored	Possession event	The artwork is kept, e.g., in a room or depot for future use	Stored with Anderson Galleries, New York (1968–87)
Transfer	Ownership event	The artwork was transferred within the same named party, involving the movement of the artwork between different parts or elements of the organization. Additionally, it encompasses the transition from partial ownership to complete ownership by one of the partial owners.	Anderson Galleries, New York, transfer (1969)

These options will be continuously expanded to meet the requirements of new research results unearthed by the projects using the Navigating.art platform. If you can’t find a transaction type to accurately represent your provenance case, contact our support team to find a solution.

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Last updated: September 3, 2025

Provenance transaction types

Understanding provenance transaction types is essential for accurate art history documentation. This comprehensive guide explains ownership changes, possession events, and unlawful exchanges available on our platform.

Overview of transaction types

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